Battle of White Plains in the American Revolution

Battle of White Plains in the American Revolution The Battle of White Plains was fought October 28, 1776, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Part of the New York Campaign, the battle came about after British forces landed at Pells Point, NY and threatened to cut off the American line of retreat from Manhattan. Departing the island, the Continental Army established a position at White Plains where it was attacked on October 28. After sharp fighting, the British captured a key hill that compelled the Americans to withdraw. The retreat from White Plains saw General George Washingtons men move across New Jersey before crossing the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. Background In the wake of their defeat at the Battle of Long Island (August 27-30, 1776) and victory at the Battle of Harlem Heights (September 16), General George Washingtons Continental Army found itself camped at the northern end of Manhattan. Moving tentatively, General William Howe elected to begin a campaign of maneuver rather than directly attacking the American position. Embarking 4,000 men on October 12, Howe moved them through Hells Gate and landed at Throgs Neck. Here their advance inland was blocked by swamps and a group of Pennsylvania riflemen led by Colonel Edward Hand. General Sir William Howe. Public Domain Not wishing to force his way through, Howe re-embarked and moved up the coast to Pells Point. Marching inland, they won a sharp engagement over a small Continental force at Eastchester, before pressing on to New Rochelle. Alerted to Howes movements, Washington realized that Howe was in a position to cut his lines of retreat. Deciding to abandon Manhattan, he began moving the main army north to White Plains where he possessed a supply depot. Due to pressure from Congress, he left around 2,800 men under Colonel Robert Magaw to defend Fort Washington on Manhattan. Across the river, Major General Nathanael Greene held Fort Lee with 3,500 men. Battle of White Plains Conflict: American Revolution (1775-1783)Dates: October 28, 1776Armies and Commanders:AmericansGeneral George Washington13,000 menBritishGeneral William Howe14,500 menCasualties:Americans: 28 killed, 126 woundedBritish: 42 killed, 182 wounded The Armies Clash Marching into White Plains on October 22, Washington established a defensive line between the Bronx and Croton Rivers, near the village. Building breastworks, Washingtons right was anchored on Purdy Hill and led by Major General Israel Putnam, while the left was commanded by Brigadier General William Heath and anchored on Hatfield Hill. Washington personally commanded the center. Across the Bronx River, in line with the American right rose Chattertons Hill. Possessing wooded sides and fields on the hilltop, Chattertons Hill was initially protected by a mixed force of militia. Reinforced at New Rochelle, Howe began moving north with around 14,000 men. Advancing in two columns, they passed through Scarsdale early on October 28, and approached Washingtons position at White Plains. As the British neared, Washington dispatched Brigadier General Joseph Spencers 2nd Connecticut Regiment to delay the British on the plain between Scarsdale and Chattertons Hill.  Arriving on the field, Howe immediately recognized the importance of the hill and decided to make it the focus of his attack.  Deploying his army, Howe detached 4,000 men, led by Colonel Johann Ralls Hessians to make the assault. A Gallant Stand Advancing, Ralls men came under fire from Spencers troops which had taken a position behind a stone wall. Inflicting losses on the enemy, they were forced to pull back towards Chattertons Hill when a British column led by General Henry Clinton threatened their left flank.  Recognizing the importance of the hill, Washington ordered Colonel John Haslets 1st Delaware Regiment to reinforce the militia.   As British intentions became clearer, he also dispatched Brigadier General Alexander McDougalls brigade. The Hessian pursuit of Spencers men was stopped on the slopes of the hill by determined fire from Haslets men and the militia. Bringing the hill under intense artillery fire from 20 guns, the British were able to panic the militia leading them to flee from the area. General George Washington. Public Domain The American position was quickly stabilized as McDougalls men arrived on the scene and new line formed with the Continentals on the left and center and the rallied militia on the right. Crossing the Bronx River under the protection of their guns, the British and Hessians pressed on towards Chattertons Hill. While the British attacked directly up the hill, the Hessians moved to envelop the American right flank. Though the British were repulsed, the Hessians flank attack caused the New York and Massachusetts militia to flee. This exposed the flank of Haslets Delaware Continentals. Reforming, the Continental troops were able to beat back several Hessian attacks but were ultimately overwhelmed and forced retreat back to the main American lines. Aftermath With the loss of Chattertons Hill, Washington concluded that his position was untenable and elected to retreat to the north. While Howe had won a victory, he was unable to immediately follow up his success due to heavy rains the next day few days. When the British advanced on November 1, they found the American lines empty. While a British victory, the Battle of White Plains cost them 42 killed and 182 wounded as opposed to only 28 killed and 126 wounded for the Americans. While Washingtons army began a long retreat which would ultimately see them move north then west across New Jersey, Howe broke off his pursuit and turned south to capture Forts Washington and Lee on November 16 and 20 respectively.  Having completed the conquest of the New York City area,  Howe ordered Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis to pursue Washington across northern New Jersey.  Continuing their retreat, the disintegrating American army finally crossed the Delaware in to Pennsylvania in early December. American fortunes would not improve until December 26, when Washington launched a daring attack against Ralls Hessian forces in Trenton, NJ.

Chimpanzees Essays - Apes, Jane Goodall, Animal Communication

Chimpanzees Essays - Apes, Jane Goodall, Animal Communication Chimpanzees A new study has shown that chimpanzees may be able to determine whether their partners know they are in danger. This suggests that these primates are able to decide how ignorant or informed their peers are about an unexpected situation. The finding, made by a team of researchers at Ohio State University's Comparative Cognition Project, suggests that chimps share with humans the ability to perceive the knowledge state of a peer, and perhaps the intention to protect that peer. Earlier experiments with both rhesus and Japanese macaque monkeys failed to show the same abilities in those animals. These new results strengthen the argument that in some ways, chimpanzees are closer to humans than they are to other primates. The studies were presented Aug. 16 in Chicago at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association. Sally Boysen, associate professor of psychology at Ohio State and director of the project, said the fundamental question for the test was whether one chimpanzee could tell if another was ignorant of a specific situation, in this case, of a threat or a reward. Boysen and her colleagues tested three pairs of chimpanzees at the Ohio State colony. Two adult males, Kermit and Darrell, who had been together for 18 years, were tested, along with a pair of females, Sarah and Abagail, and a male and female Bobby and Sheba. For the tests, Boysen modeled both a treat and a threat to the chimps. She used grapes, a food the chimps highly desired, as the hidden treat. A member of the research group hiding with a tranquilizer dart was the threat. All of the animals in the study had previously been sedated by a dart or had seen a tranquilizer dart used, and saw it as a threat. In half of the test conditions, both animals in the pair were able to watch as either the grapes were hidden in the cage, or a researcher with the tranquilizer dart hid as a predator. For the rest of the experiments, one animal was placed in an adjoining cage with a clear view of the food or threat while the other animal was kept off in a nearby room. Boysen wanted to know if one animal would "tell" the other about the reward or threat. If they did, it would mean one animal would have to decide how well informed the other was about a given situation. When she tested the animals with the hidden grapes, absolutely nothing happened. No information was exchanged between the two chimps. "You wouldn't expect it to work with the food since no chimpanzee is going to willingly inform another about the presence of food that they themselves don't have access to," she said. But when the grapes were replaced by the predator, the results changed dramatically. When Kermit was released into the cage area where the researcher was hidden out of sight behind a wall, Darrell became extremely agitated. He turned to Kermit displaying fear grimaces and alarm vocalizations - two common warning gestures for chimpanzees. Darrell's hair also stood on end all over his body, which reflected his state of arousal. Kermit mirrored the same fear responses, turned and left the cage area before getting close to the hidden predator. "Based on what we believe about the emergence of these skills in humans," Boysen said, "this suggests that Darrell, in a sense, put himself in Kermit's place. I think Darrell was aware that Kermit couldn't have known that the predator was hidden in there." During the research all six animals ran through the same experiments and the results were always the same the chimps "told" their peers of the hidden predator. "This suggests that one chimp does recognize the different knowledge state in the other chimp," Boysen said. "Darrell didn't know what the predator was going to do so he had to make a prediction, a rapid assessment of the situation. He made the decision that there would be trouble if he didn't let Kermit know about the predator." Primatologists have long known that chimpanzees in the wild will give off warning calls when they see a potential threat. Boysen said that these were generalized warnings not specific ones.

Life and accomplishments of W. E. B. Du Bois Essay

Life and accomplishments of W. E. B. Du Bois - Essay Example After graduating from Harvard as the first African American with a doctorate, he becomes a professor of History, sociology and economics at Atlanta University. Throughout his life, it is estimated that Du Bois wrote over four thousand articles, essays, and books. As a result of his contributions, many university and government institutes have been named after Du Bois and currently he even has a face book appreciation group. His contribution to societal development through activism and scholarly work has been applauded by many scholars. He underwent a lot of hardships to accomplish his doctorate degree at Harvard University which was a remarkable achievement as was he was considered the first African American to earn such kind of honor. Through his determination and need to see a society free from racism and discrimination he cofounded National Association for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). His contribution to African studies has been evidenced through his scholarly writings m ore so touching African American way of life. For example, According to Gooding (178), Du Bois contributions particularly provided an important but often overlooked perspective of Africana culture, history and philosophy. He also participated in the redevelopment of Africana studies and relating it to the events of the 21st century. Among his major scholarly works included The Philadelphia Negro and The Souls of Black Folk these books endeavored to show that Africans had same capabilities as their fellow whites and there was no reason for discrimination. On the other hand, his contribution to Africana philosophy of education was through such writings that demonstrated intellectual struggle, personal sacrifice, group leadership, and African historical and cultural grounding in understanding Africana studies. Through such contribution it has provided a pedagogical paradigm that helps to understand and explain African ability to excel. W. E. B. Du Bois has also been hailed for his exem plary political activism which contributed to black liberation, racial justice and the liberation of poor masses. Throughout his career life, Du Bois was instrumental in championing women liberation and black liberation. His writings particularly provided an important insight on Africana history, culture, and philosophy–informed framework for redeveloping Africana studies and crises associated to it in the 21st century. He has also been important in the development of critical social theory making Africana studies multicultural in its approach. The scholar has also contributed to Africana studies through relating critical theory to radical political mentality. Additionally Du Bois’s theoretical perception and pragmatic findings were trend setting as he challenged ideologies about black inadequacy. Unlike others during his reign Du Bois enhanced his theoretical beliefs on black dilemma, and the black middle class with experienced research documenting structural racism a s the major perpetrator of racial inequality. Throughout his teen years Du Bois developed an interest in race relation and went ahead to become the local correspondent for the New York Globe. He spent two years at the University of Berlin in Germany studying economics and history. During his studies in Germany, Du Bois saw the frequency of racism in a globalized context. Du Bois worked in a

What it feels like to skydive Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

What it feels like to skydive - Essay Example Then there is a downward acceleration, where someone falls with no expectation to land. This occurs at high speeds of about 150 miles per hour and surprisingly, it is hard to feel the speed (Mattern, 2010). At one moment, it feels like there is zero gravity where there is a floating sensation. After a while, an individual realizes that there is an upward push from the strength of the wind. The environment is contradictory because it is calm and so loud at the same time. After a successful adventure, it is time to pull the chute. This immediately changes the excitement and the mood of the experience. The chute goes down in a slow manner that someone can get dizzy and only the wind reminds someone of the heights. In a moment, the chute makes landing easy and enjoyable. At this point, a person feels dizzy and their ears could pop due to the changes in atmospheric pressure. Skydiving is indeed a worthy

AIDS In The Workplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

AIDS In The Workplace - Essay Example For the past two centuries, countless citizens in these United States, from every race, background and persuasion, have reposed their faith on these words to secure for them the basic rights they are entitled to. Even while this statement calls the truth of men’s equality â€Å"self-evident,† succeeding generations of racial minorities and economic classes have had to struggle to lay claim this right. The significance and interpretation of the very phrase â€Å"all men are created equal† has repeatedly been called into question – apparently, it was not as â€Å"self-evident† as the founding Fathers had initially envisioned it to be. For instance, more than one and a half centuries after the Declaration of Independence, people of color were taken to be less than and even property of the white man, and new immigrants were regarded with disdain compared to native-born Americans, although the privileged native-born Americans were understood not to include native indigeneous Americans. This is not to mention the stereotypes attached to the male and female genders, the religious faithful, and levels of education – particularly those reared in private or iv y-league schools as against the public schools. But these were the first two centuries of American nationhood. In the twenty-first century, it seems such issues have been repeatedly put to the test by judicial pronouncements and legal statutes. There is a special case, however, wherein discrimination is still a stinging issue. These are in the matter of persons with physical disabilities in the workplace. Those with genetic and natural disabilities already contend with the prejudice that they could not perform as well as able-bodied individuals, which, to be frank, may be true in some occupations. The chicken-and-egg dilemma of disabilities in the workplace is that if disabled people are considered equal, it means they should enjoy no special favors, else it is the able-bodied who are discriminated

Spiral of Silence: Communication Theory

Spiral of Silence: Communication Theory This is a report based on the communication theory â€Å"Spiral of Silence and the aim of the report is to investigate the theory more into detail, to validate it and to see how it applies to our society, mainly in the I.T industry. The report outlines the finding that I have researched and complied with the help of books, data bases, journals and external sources. Based on the theory, Elizabeth Noelle Neumann stated that if individuals believed that they are part of the minority, the less likely they are to voice their opinion due to the fear of isolation. There were many other theorists that supported her view and others that had stated so before her. There was a variety of theory being investigated and in many different forms but the all focused on one thing which was, the â€Å"fear of social isolation†. There were many forms of research method used, based on the public view, a country as a whole and as individual view. The theory is said to apply to very delicate topics such as war, politics, misuse of authority and other views that could cause massive debate. This is the reason why people tend to think twice when it comes to voicing their views if they believe that they are in the minority group. Having a fair idea of what the theory is about, I will validate the theory with all the information that I have found and prove the theory stating if the theory has any connection to our society and individuals. Introduction Purpose This report is based on the theory spiral of silence those main purpose is to state how it can be applied to everyday situations and particularly the I.T industry. Research is an investigative process where we search systematically for solutions to problems. It is about rules to guide our research and helping us to evaluate the research of others. The function of the research is to test the theory. Research is the instrument used to test whether a theory is correct or not. It is the process by which data is gathered to generate a theory and used to test a theory. This main purpose for this report is to explain the theory in detail and outline the key issues that the theory sates. Also it helps us understand communication theory better and clearer, since communication is an important skill to have in the I.T industry and we also use it in our everyday lives, it is an important skill to have. There are a lot of topics and political problems that people are afraid to talk about and spea k out on and so I will try to prove or investigate the theory and see if the theory relates to what it states and if the theorists is credible. Scope In the report I will be investigating the theory and its relationship it has to communication. I will also evaluate the credibility of the theorists and the theory and how it can be applied to the present day situations particularly in the information technology industry. There were a lot of different views expressed and in different context. I will be focusing more in the involvement and effect that the media has on us as individuals in forming opinions. Since media is seen to play a major role in this theory, I will focus more on it but not forgetting the other factors that may cause the spiral of silence. I will also outline some of the tests and experiments that were done by some scholars and theorist and evaluate it. Limitations During the overall completion of the project I did face certain problems and ran into difficulties. Firstly although there was enough time given to complete the research I had other projects to complete, which in turn made it difficult to compile the report. There was however a bit of restriction on the amount of information that was available on the internet, in that case I had rely on the other sources like the pro-quest and the online data base. There werent many books available in the library that contained information regarding my theory so my tutor was able to issue me with some books which did help me compile my research. The computer labs on campus were usually occupied and so I had to do most of my research and the typing at home. Research Methods Searching for information and investigating the theory was a very challenging task to do especially when here were limited resources available on the internet. There were information available but most of it had similar information which made it hard to use. I had to use all resources available including library data bases, internet and old scholar journals. I wasnt really able to find any books in the library, but I was able to get two books from my tutor that contained information about my theory and it provided me with a lot of details that helped me understand the theory in details and explained the theory in detail and context. It explained a lot about the theory stating the history and how it is viewed by the public and each individual. Most of the information which I found on the internet was manly repeated and each website stated almost similar information which really stated the same information. The only relevant information that I was able to use was the information about the theory and the theorist. The Scholar journals did have a bit more information about the theory which mainly based on a research that was done. I found some journal that stated a research and the findings of the investigation. It looked at the theory in a different form in which it was applied in an investigation and research. Structure Of The Report In this report I will briefly explain and introduce the theory then explain the purpose, scope, research methods and limitations of the research. I will also do a literature review that will briefly review some of the sources where I got my information from. The main body will contain the findings, background, key issues, and application of the theory then finally evaluate it. In the final part I will summarise my report and then state my opinions and thoughts about the theory. Literature Review Book Reviews Book 1: Communication Theories for Everyday Life John R. Baldwin, Stephen D. Perry, Mary Anne Moffitt. (2003). Communication Theories for Everyday Life (1st Edition). Person: Allyn Bacon, Inc. Summary The book Communication Theories for Everyday Life (New Edition) provides us with a lot of information on the theory by Elizabeth Neumann, The Spiral of silence. The authors in this book mainly focus the theory spiral of silence based on the media which is said to play an influential role. They believe that the media plays an important role in influencing the public into making decisions or ideas. They explained how the theory provides some insight into why we might avoid contributing to some political discussions but participate fully in others based on our observation of opinion in the real world. Sports can also bring out heated opinions in certain settings with fans of a certain team will argue or debate amongst a member of the opposing teams. When issues like this arise we tend to be more careful about when and to whom we express our ideas and opinions. We are constantly surveying our environment subconsciously for trends in public opinions. Television is believed to be the most influential medium for this theory since it is everywhere. We may not own a TV of our own but we see it in stores, airports or at a friends house. Being part of the majority is what most people tend to want and we will compare our opinions with that of the majority because we desire social inclusion. Therefore if someone believes he or she is in the minority, that person will be inhibited from speaking out and expressing the minority view point. Validation After carefully reading and analysing the following abstract from the book, I conclude that the facts that were stated in this book do have some connections to the theory. They have outlined a lot of ideas to what the theory spiral of silence is about. It also points out some important facts mainly that mass media is seen to be a very important tool in changing peoples views or forming their decisions. Since people tend to base their decisions on the majoritys choice. It also provides some insight into how television actually has an impact on the people as a whole. It proves that people are double mined on speaking out as a minority and will be more comfortable if they believe that they are part of the majority. Since there is a lot of support in the majority we wont fear social isolation, but if we are in the minority there is not much support and so we fear that we are on our own and so we may be isolated. According to the theory by Elizabeth she believes that mass media does have a huge effect on the theory and so the authors have based most of their finding on Neumanns theory about the media. Most of the information in the abstract concentrates on the medias influence, changes and perceptions that it may have on our opinions. Book 2: Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis Application Richard West, Lynn H. Tuner. (2004). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis Application (2nd Edition). Marquette University Summary The Book Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis Application, explains the theory spiral of silence by Elizabeth Noelle Neumann. It explains how the media has impacted our opinions and changed dramatically over the years. The authors stated that over the years the media has helped to shape and make us what we are today. They believe that Neumann focused on what happened when people provide their opinions on a variety of issues that the media have defined for the public. Her theory suggests that people who believe that they hold a minority viewpoint on the public issue will remain in the background or isolated. Where their communication will be constrained, those who believe that they hold a majority viewpoint will be encouraged to speak out. Neumann stated that the media will focus more on the majority views while underestimating the minority viewpoint. She believes that the media will only be focused on the minority and their views while forgetting the minority groups. The minori ty will be less assertive in communicating their opinions therefore leading to a downward spiral of communication. The minority will then overestimate their influence and will become emboldened in their opinions where the media reports on their opinions and activities. The media is seen to play a very important role in the theory. The media chooses to report on the majority groups opinions and activities and only tend to focus on them where they will be heard by the public. The minority will then be forgotten and so their opinions and view s are not heard. Validation The authors have highlighted some very important points about the theory. Mass media being the main focus, it has a lot of influence on peoples opinions. It is seen to be a very powerful tool that could change peoples views and mentality. It has the power to influence and change people beliefs, making them believe what they are told or shown. It is human mentality to go with the flow and just follow the crowd. We are easily convinced just because the majority rules. If we had to debate a topic and asked to choose an answer we tend to choose the group where there is a lot of support forgetting about the minority. The authors are just moving on from Neumanns theory to explaining more into detail the role of the media on our opinions. Thought they may not have done any research on the theory, they have research more on the theory and explained it in simple terms. Library Databases Journal 1: The Spiral of Silence is broken Jose Luis Barberia, Kel Pais Rel Pais. (March 5, 2009). The Spiral of Silence is broken. (1), (6). Summary This article was based on an experiment that was done in Taiwan which explored the relationships between inoculation and the spiral of silence theory. According to the writers they believed that inoculation strategies would be able to ease spiral of silence focusing on resistance to counter-attitudinal attack and willingness to speak out for fear of isolation. The study was based on random sampled citizens in Taiwan while he issue being Taiwans political future in relation the Peoples Republic of China. The results concluded that Inoculation treatments enhanced peoples resistance to attitude change. The study seeks to integrate the theories of inoculation and the spiral of silence. The factors featured in the spiral of silence theory might have significant implications for inoculation studies.They also stated that Noelle-Neumann initiated some original assumptions of the theory which was individual, media system and societal. They explained that individuals are social beings are afra id of being isolated from their fellow human being. Secondly, in order to avoid being isolated or losing popularity, individuals constantly observe their environment to locate proper positions to enable them to perceive the distribution of opinions. Third is that the individuals are capable of distinguishing between static and fluid opinions. Fourth is the social environment where individual notice that their personal opinions are spreading and supported by others will voice their opinions confidently in public. In contrast, if they notice their opinions losing ground they will adopt a more reserved attitude when speaking out in public or even withdraw from the public discussion. This is the chain reaction for fear of isolation. Validation This journal goes deep into context and explains the theory deeper and focuses on the human behaviour based on the theory. It was an experiment that was done in Taiwan, exploring the relationships between Inoculation and the spiral of silence theory. It was stated that Inoculation could counter the spiral of silence theory. The study focused more on the human behaviour and explains why we tend to isolate ourselves and are afraid to speak out in public. It helps us understand why the theory affects the minority groups. It examined the potential influences of the individuals construct on opinion expression as a cultural-level and the willingness to express opinions differing across two cultures. The test also saw that the lack of efficacy negatively predicts a willingness to express opinions while the lack of self-assurance of ones opinions negatively predicts a willingness to express opinions. Journal 2: The Spiral of Silence and Public opinion on affirmative action Patricia May, David Domke, Keith Stamm. (Spring, 2001). The Spiral of Silence and Public opinion on affirmative action. (78). (1) This journal was a study done to explain the key variables involved in Elizabeth Noelle-Neumanns Spiral of Silence Theory, which states that fearing isolation is what keeps the individuals from expressing their desired opinions because they are minority. The authors decided to carry out a test based on the theory but in the context of public discussion which was focused on affirmative action policies. They reviewed selected data from 217 randomly selected adults on October 1998 that indicated fear of isolation. It showed that fear of isolation indeed prevents one from publicly voicing perceived minority opinions. The willingness to speak out on a controversial ballot was predicted also by demographics, media use and the importance of the issue. In recent years, citizens have voted to repeal affirmative action laws and policies that have been enacted in the 1960s and 1970s; ensuring opportunity regards less of race and gender. It is believed that this trend caused more harm than good, while others disagreed arguing that affirmative action may be the best approach. There were a lot of public discussions about affirmative action. They believed that Neumann suggest that issues which are controversial tends to make people refrain from expressing their opinions if they believe that it will only be shared by minority. The study basically explores the factors contributing to peoples willingness to speak publicly on controversial topics, focusing on the concept of fear of isolation. Validation This journal is another research project investigating more on the theory. They researched it on the public opinions based on affirmative actions. The theory suggests that isolation from the publicly stating our opinions may occur people believe that they are part of the minority group. The study does prove the theory to some extent where they based the study on public opinions which does have a lot to do with the theory because it is mainly in public that people are double minded on raising their opinions. People are also cautious when speaking on controversial topics and topics which may raise some concerns or opinions. The study was seen to be successful and so does to some extent prove the theory correct. Overall in this case I can say that the theory is correct and the study done was successful and did test the willingness of the public on the controversial ballot. The only downside would be that they used data from the past and merged it with their research, which means that it may be old or irrelevant with the present time. Internet Sources Source 1: Wikipedia Wikipedia. (2009). Spiral of silence. Retrieved August 12, 2009, from Summary This web page explains Elizabeth Neumanns theory is a theoretical way. It states that the theory is a political science and mass communication theory. The spiral of silence begins with the fear of retaliation or isolation and escalates from there. Mass media is seen to play a major role in determining what the dominant opinion is, since our observation is limited to a small percentage of the population. Neumann describes the spiral of silence as a dynamic process, where public opinion becomes a fact as mass medias coverage of the majority opinion gets more publicity, and the minority becomes less likely to speak out. The theory is seen to only apply to moral or opinion issues, not issues that can be proven right or wrong using facts. People who are highly educated, or who have greater affluence or those who do not fear isolation will speak out regardless of public opinions which means the minority is a necessary factor of change while the compliant majority is a necessary factor of s tability, with both being a product of evolution. Most research is focused on social issues such as smoking and the aftermath of September 11, 2001. The concept of isolation has a variety of definitions, depending on the circumstances it is investigated in. It could be defined as social withdrawal which means less interaction. Researchers have defined isolation as low levels of peer acceptance or high levels of peer rejection. The features of the internet could not only bring about more people to deliberate by freeing people of the psychological barriers. They have also raised another point where the internet is also another form of expressing their views without fear of isolation because it can be anonymous and there is no human contact which means that the persons identity could be protected. The internet has a lot of users because it liberates people from the social hierarchies and power relations that exists offline without any human contact. Validation Wikipedia is an online web-based encyclopaedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation which provides us with any information that we may want. The only problem is that most of the information is posted on by the public, which means they may not be proven theoretically or have any evidence. Wikipedia looks at the theory in a theoretical perspective which explains the theory in detailed and clearer view which is closely connected with the Elizabeth theory. According to the author he/she also believes that mass media plays an important role in the theory and how it works. The concept of isolation is also explained deeper into context where it has varies definitions. It explains the social withdrawal which means less interaction and isolation. It looks at the internet as another medium that has a very huge impact on people. Since it can be accessed from home or anywhere and is gives us choices on what we want to do because it does not include human contact which makes i t easier for the minority groups or any individual to express themselves and will not be isolated because it is anonymous. Findings About The Theorist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann is a German political scientist that was born on the 19th of December, 1916. Her most famous contribution is the model of the spiral of silence which is an explanation of how perceived public opinion can influence individual opinions or actions. She earned her Abitur in 1935 in Gà ¶ttingen and then studied philosophy, history, journalism, and American studies at the Friedrich Wilhelm University, the Kà ¶nigsberg Albertina University, and the University of Missouri. She lived in the USA from 1937 to 1938 andiIn 1940 she received her PhD concentrating on public opinion research in the USA. Noelle-Neumann was also the president of the World Association for Public Opinion Research from 1978 to 1980 and worked as a guest professor at the University of Chicago from 1978 to 1991. About The Theory Spiral of Silence is an innovative theory of public opinion that developed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. Noelle-Neumann follows the paths of past philosophers Locke, Hume, Rousseau, Goethe, and James Madison, in that she considers public opinion a physical force that controls peoples decisions. Noelle-Neumann blames the spiral of silence on fear of isolation. In other words, people who feel that they are in the minority may keep quiet because they fear ridicule from the majority. The phrase â€Å"spiral of silence refers to how people tend to stay silent when they feel that their views are in the minority. The model shows the increasing pressure which people are noticing to conceal their views when they think that they are in the minority. It is a political science and mass communication theory which begins with fear of reprisal or isolation, and escalates from there. Spiral of Silence model The model is based on three premises: 1. People have a sixth-sense, which allows them to know the prevailing public opinion, even without access to polls. 2. People have a fear of isolation and know what behaviours will increase their likelihood of being socially isolated. 3. People are silent to express their minority views, primarily out of fear of being isolated. Source: http://www.cw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Levels%20of%20theories/macro/spiral_of_silence.doc/ Introduction Elizabeth Neumann examines public opinion as a form of social control. She believes that Individuals instinctively notice the opinions of those around them and shape their behaviour according to what is acceptable. The closer a person believes the opinion held is similar to the prevailing public opinion, the more he/she is willing to openly disclose that opinion in public. If the public statement changes, the person will recognize that the opinions loses its popularity and the person will be less willing to express that opinion publicly. In her model of opinion formation, Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann postulates a spiral of silence: to avoid isolation, people holding minority views either change their ideas to conform to the majoritys views or remain silent, thus increasing the impression of the majority views dominance. While providing a helpful integration of disparate ideas in public opinion formation, Noelle-Neumanns framework has been questioned at a number of points. Is it reasonable to assume that since people fear isolation, most fear being in the minority? Her research suggests, in fact, that many people can oppose majority views as long as they have individual or group support and that interpersonal relationships have a greater impact on opinion formation than impersonal public opinion presented through the media. Recent studies have also offered an alternative to Noelle-Neumanns view of people as simply reacting to their perception of public opinion, suggesting that instead, people use their own opinions to for m their perceptions of public attitudes. Whether peoples behaviour resembles the reaction or projection model may depend on a number of conditions, including their familiarity with the issue. Further research is needed on the many factors influencing opinion formation The Fear Of Isolation This is the main force that drives the spiral of silence. People want to be identified as a winner and therefore conform to the majoritys beliefs. The last thing that people want is to be isolated from a group or society. There are some exceptions though, as there is a time to speak and a time to keep silent which is centred on public opinion. If our view is in favour we will speak out then when our views drop out of favour, we will most defiantly keep silent. Summary In 1973, Elizabeth Noelle- Neumann articulated one of the few integrated expositions of the mass communication effects and the process of public opinion. In general she was able to demonstrate that individuals can attempt to gauge majority opinion on an issue and that some individuals appear to be influenced by their perceptions of majority opinion on some issues. In doing so she was successful in clarifying and empirically testing hypothesis about a concept that has been only vaguely defined in public opinion. In this report I will be outlining Noelle-Neumanns conceptualization of two key concepts, the climate of opinion and that spiral of silence of silence. The validity of basing the â€Å"fear of isolation† concept on social psychological literature on conformity is examined. Also the role of the media in conveying the majority opinion will be examined. The Spiral Of Silence According to Noelle- Neumann, individuals are constantly sensitive to the climate of opinion and assess the distribution and strength of the opinion for and against their own. The tendency of one to speak up and others to be silent leads to the spiralling process which increasingly establishes one opinion as the popular one. Neumanns definition of public opinion is best expressed as the dominating opinion which compels compliance of attitude a behaviour in that it threatens the dissenting individuals with isolation. There are a few individuals that are known as â€Å"hardcores† who are willing to express their opinions without feeling compelled to conform. They will not be silent in the face of the public opinion. How do individuals know which opinions are acceptable to express in public without the fear of isolation? Neumann claims that by the use of a â€Å"quasi-statistical organ†, the individual assesses the opinion environment. The individual will the specifically use the climate of opinion. The media plays an important role through agenda-setting, according to certain persons and arguments relating the urgency or share of success for various opinions. One of the main parts of the explanation to the spiral of silence is the role of mass media. Noelle-Neumann believes that with more people watching mass media, the more the minority will keep quite because they will think that they are even more of a minority that they actually are. She claims that this is so because it is becoming the only media outlet that people are using, along with the internet, so it is able to control exactly what people see or hear. The media know this and because of that, they use their powers to influence the public opinion as much as possible towards which ever beliefs they hold or want to put across. Noelle-Neumann claimed that in the early seventys, the media had powerful effects, particularly over opinion formation. She believed that it was deficient because it was conducted under laboratory conditions and not in the field. Mass media is everywhere and individuals can rarely escape accumulation of the same media message. It was also found that in any circumstance a person with low self-esteem is less likely to speak out even if they agree with the majority opinion, simply because that is what their personality dictates. She also discovered that having diverse reporting has a powerful role in the mass media and the views of those watching it. Since the media is diverse, and it shares different view points on a subject, then people will be more willing to take different sides of an argument because they will not feel as alienated as before. The elements of Noelle-Neumanns ideas can also be found in several scholarly works including Floyd Allport (1978) who described the climate of opinion. John Locke (1961) describes Noelle-Neumanns â€Å"hardcores† when he says â€Å"nor is there one of ten thousand who is stiff and insensible enough to bear up under the constant dislike and condemnation of his own club† W.Phillps Davison (1975) describes the public opinion process of conformity-induced silence occurs when an individual feels he/she is in the midst of a hostile majority. Thus the concept of the opinion climate and the spiral of silence are not new. Noelle-Neumann was able to articulate a thesis based on these concepts and generated data to support some of her contentions. When Noelle Neumann was forced to revise her theory to accommodate the other findings, the theory became much better. She added to her theory many other factors such as race, gender, age, environment, and social status. Now the theory cl aims that all of these things, in addition to whether one is in the majority of the opinion on a subject, will all matter whether a person speaks out. Fear Of Isolation Conformity Since Pressure to conform is a major portion of Noelle-Neumanns foundation for her arguments, Solomon Asch (1995) also did a study where he put one subject in the midst of seen confederates and asked each person to determine the shortest of three lines. Arch had seven confederates purposively select an incorrect line, and then examined the subjects response in light of the clearly wrong response of the confederates. He found that one-fourth of the subjects were completely independent of any majority pressure. These people, who Noelle-Neumann would label â€Å"hardcores†, selected the correct lines despite pressure to conform and select the incorrect line. On the other hand, no subjects conformed on every trial the situation did not elicit total conformity from subjects. He found that in manipulating some independent variables, pressure to agree is highly specific. There is no single â€Å"type† of individual who agrees, nor does public conformity imply inner acceptance of judgment or opinion. In analyzing different groups of subjects, Asch found that although very few yielded nearly completely to majority influence, they didnt think they had yielded at all. These people perceived the majority estimates as correct and didnt feel as though they themselves had conformed. Most of the subjects, who agreed, however lacked the confidence in their estimates and felt a tendency to go along with the majority when in doubt. Others who confirmed knew they were right but did not want to appear different from the majority. In a follow-up experiment, Asch found that if the subject had some support from some in the group, conformity to majority influence inclined substantially. Noelle-Neumann based her spiral of silence theory notion on face-to-face, small group situations that was described by Locke (1961), Allport (1937) and Asch (1951). In each of the cases the individual is isolated a midst a hostile majority and in direct contact with his antagonists. Although most of the test that were done in the past did prove the theory, there were some circumstances that were overlooked, as to the ability to apply to universal situations. For example, different ages, gender and education were left out and the very fact that the questions that were asked were about irrelevant things, raises the

Essay --

Genocide, assimilation, and segregation-- these are all forms of cultural and ethnic cleansing that we as Canadians do not necessarily associate with what it means to be a Canadian, rather they are terms that we associate with occurrences in distant, dangerous and abysmal places (Fleras, 2012; p. 10). However, these terms are evidently applicable to the treatment of Aboriginals during the time of European colonization of Canada. Genocide is considered to â€Å"be the most serious of punishable crimes under international law†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Fleras, 2010; p. 11); unfortunately, genocide has been inflicted upon Aboriginals in numerous forms as they suffered a loss of cultural identity through European-colonization. Assimilation has also affected Aboriginals as through the use of residential schools, Aboriginal children were taken from their families and forced to learn the dominant white way of life and abandon their culture (Fleras, 2010; p.13). Segregation of Aboriginals has also occu rred, as reserves are restricted purely for individuals with Indian citizenship, hence keeping Aboriginals separate from the dominant culture (Fleras, 2010; p. 15). There is a lack of awareness on the horrendous and disgusting treatment of the original Canadian settlers, Aboriginals, which can be partially attributed to a narrative that has helped create the image of what it means to be a Canadian, a narrative that has provided the belief that white Europeans were the first to settle on Canadian land and has painted a picture of white settlers struggling to survive on their discovered Canadian land. This narrative has been termed the ‘frontier narrative’, and it truly has shaped Aboriginals lives in Canada. This paper will provide first and foremost a clear definition o... ...in attempting to alter the policies and practices that keep them in their marginalized position, however one obstacle being that â€Å"conventions that refer to the rules may change, but rules that inform the conventions rarely do† (Fleras, 2010; p. 185). The frontier narrative has inadvertently placed a veil over Canadians that keep feelings of guilt and responsibility for the cruelty towards Aboriginals invisible, and simultaneously keeps visible the belief that it is because of the white-settlers that Canada has become what it has today. Some may argue that the frontier narrative is no longer relevant to Canada’s multicultural society, however as demonstrated, it is clear that the narrative has manifested itself and has played and continues to play a crucial role in the structuring of Canadian society and treatment of Aboriginals; the true first-settlers of Canada. Essay -- Genocide, assimilation, and segregation-- these are all forms of cultural and ethnic cleansing that we as Canadians do not necessarily associate with what it means to be a Canadian, rather they are terms that we associate with occurrences in distant, dangerous and abysmal places (Fleras, 2012; p. 10). However, these terms are evidently applicable to the treatment of Aboriginals during the time of European colonization of Canada. Genocide is considered to â€Å"be the most serious of punishable crimes under international law†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Fleras, 2010; p. 11); unfortunately, genocide has been inflicted upon Aboriginals in numerous forms as they suffered a loss of cultural identity through European-colonization. Assimilation has also affected Aboriginals as through the use of residential schools, Aboriginal children were taken from their families and forced to learn the dominant white way of life and abandon their culture (Fleras, 2010; p.13). Segregation of Aboriginals has also occu rred, as reserves are restricted purely for individuals with Indian citizenship, hence keeping Aboriginals separate from the dominant culture (Fleras, 2010; p. 15). There is a lack of awareness on the horrendous and disgusting treatment of the original Canadian settlers, Aboriginals, which can be partially attributed to a narrative that has helped create the image of what it means to be a Canadian, a narrative that has provided the belief that white Europeans were the first to settle on Canadian land and has painted a picture of white settlers struggling to survive on their discovered Canadian land. This narrative has been termed the ‘frontier narrative’, and it truly has shaped Aboriginals lives in Canada. This paper will provide first and foremost a clear definition o... ...in attempting to alter the policies and practices that keep them in their marginalized position, however one obstacle being that â€Å"conventions that refer to the rules may change, but rules that inform the conventions rarely do† (Fleras, 2010; p. 185). The frontier narrative has inadvertently placed a veil over Canadians that keep feelings of guilt and responsibility for the cruelty towards Aboriginals invisible, and simultaneously keeps visible the belief that it is because of the white-settlers that Canada has become what it has today. Some may argue that the frontier narrative is no longer relevant to Canada’s multicultural society, however as demonstrated, it is clear that the narrative has manifested itself and has played and continues to play a crucial role in the structuring of Canadian society and treatment of Aboriginals; the true first-settlers of Canada.

Reformation Essay

The Reformation is a broad term used to describe the period of time beginning around 1500 A. D. extending through the mid-seventeenth century, with roots dating back to around the fourteenth century. Society was in something of an upheaval at the time and the church was faced persistent heresy. A wave that would become known as the Protestant Reformation started in Germany in the early 1500’s and moved throughout the German speaking countries to Scandinavia to the French and finally to England and Scotland. Differing from the Renaissance, the Reformation made an impact in most every European’s life and forced people to make the decision between the old way and the new. In the early stages of the Reformation there was a man, the pioneer of that Protestant Reformation that swept over Europe, a man who ventured into a new arena of thought in relation to how the Church, his name was Martin Luther. 1] The following writing will be a short biographical work of Martin Luther showing some of the events of his life and how through them, he changed the Church as well as contributed to the progress of the Reformation concluding with a look at his life in a way to show more of who Luther was as opposed to what he did. Martin Luther was born in Eisleben Germany on November 10, 1493 before moving to Mansfield in 1484 where he attended school before moving on to Magdeburg with the Brethren of the Common Life. From there he entered the University of Erfurt in 1501 where he was introduced to nominalist philosophy which taught the inability of natural reason to establish articles of faith. It was here that he also furthered his linguistic skills in the classical tongues, and graduated with his B. A. in 1502 and his M. A. in 1505. The winds of the Reformation had already begun to whirl as Luther was growing up. He had been studying law, before being caught up in the religious revival that had been heading across Western Europe. 2] That July he was knocked to the ground by lightning and the combination of those events, the death of a friend and issues inside himself he entered the chapter house of the Hermits of St. Augustine[3] in Erfurt monastery of the Augustinian Eremites. At this time he was given his very first Bible, which he studied relentlessly, studying carefully Romans and Galatians. He was also deeply into the works of Augustine as well as William of Occam and carried with himself the reputation of being a man of singular piety, devotion and monastic zeal. [4] To the objection of his father he took the vows in September 1506, was elected to study for the priesthood, and was made a deacon in February of 1507 and ordained a priest on April 4 of that same year. His father attended his first Mass where he rebuked Martin for disobeying his parents. [5] At the monastery, Luther practiced ascetic excesses to try to achieve some sense of inner peace. Johann von Staupitz helped him away from his life of standing fearfully in front of a Deity to responding in joy to the loving forgiveness of God through Jesus Christ. In 1510 he went on a business trip to Rome to the Vatican where he was shaken and disturbed by the commercial, showy splendor of the Vatica n. In 1512, Luther began lecturing as a doctorate of theology at Wittenberg, a position he would hold for the rest of his life. For the following two years he lectured heavily on the Psalms before shifting to Romans, Galatians, Hebrews and Titus in 1516. It was after these studies that Luther became convinced that salvation is a new relationship with God, and that it was not a merit-based system but rather it came through placing trust in the promises of God. Humans would still sin, but would live life as a forgiven sinner as a result of their relationship with Jesus Christ. It was also through these studies that Luther had his Gospel epiphany in 1516 while reading in Galatians 3 that â€Å"the just shall live by faith. † At this time that Luther was released from his haunting sense of guilt and crossed over into the freedom that came from relying on God’s grace. During this time he was growing, discovering new convictions, and while he had not written them into an officially theology he did have the principles that would be instrumental in and would define the Reformation; man is justified by faith alone, every believer has direct access to God and the Bible is the sole source of authority for faith and life. In 1517 Luther decided he needed to put these ideas into action. It was in that year that he came across a Dominican, Johann Tetzel, selling indulgences to Luther’s parishioners. Going against Tetzel’s methods, bad theology and the fact that the outflow of cash was for a new St. Peter’s for Leo X, Luther preached against buying pardons and for relying on God’s grace for salvation. He had grown tired of this theology that was lacking Scriptural truth about it. On October 31, 1517, the day for which many remember Luther, he tacked Ninety-five Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg intending to have the questions bring about academic discussion, not a document written to insight a revolt against the pope of the Church of Rome. The Theses were translated and circulated bringing about attacks from Tetzel and the formidable Eck, labeling him a heretic. Luther was ordered by Leo X to appear at Rome in 1518 though it Frederck â€Å"the Wise† changed the hearing to Augsburg and it was through Frederick’s protection that Luther was able to survive. At the time of the hearing, Leo was drafting a papal bull describing indulgences in the exact fashion that Luther had questioned. In 1519 Luther’s debate went publicly with Eck and he admitted that he rejected other authority of popes and councils when they were not congruent to the Scriptures. To combat the view that he was going against everything the church stood for, he published three works to clarify his views; â€Å"An Address to Christian Nobility of the German Nation,† â€Å"The Babylonian Captivity of the Church† and the â€Å"Liberty of a Christian Man. On Dec. 10, 1520, he was presented with a papal bull threatening to excommunicate him. He publicly burned the document along with a copy of the canon law, an open defiance of the pope’s authority in refusal to renounce any of his viewpoints Due to factors beyond just Luther’s actions, the Wittenberg civil authorities looked on approvingly as their country was in a rebellious mood. Again h e was summoned to appear before the pope, again refusing to budge from his position. A group of German churchmen, princes and nobles approached him one day ordering him to recant to which he replied, â€Å"Unless I am refuted and convicted by testimonies of Scripture or by clear arguments, my conscience is bound in the word of God: I cannot and will not recant anything. I cannot do otherwise. Here I stand. God help me, Amen. † It was Frederick that again came to the rescue of Luther, saving him from almost certain martyrdom yet again, abducting him on his journey from Worms and holding him at the Wartburg Castle for ten months. Some consider Luther’s time spent there in the castle his most valuable as, among other things, he translated the Greek Bible to German. Upon his return to Wittenberg in March of 1522 he set about organizing the reformation that had nearly crumbled under the enthusiastic, but unskilled leadership of such people as Carlstadt and Zwilling in Wittenberg. They had gotten a crowd together that started rampages, wrecking statuary and artwork, actions Luther quickly denounced and went about producing forms for instruction, worship and church government. The Peasant’s War came about in 1524, but Luther continued undeterred, holding to the position of upholding authority, calling for social justice and urging the consideration for the economic welfare of the lower class. Luther’s language used in urging the princes to put down the revolt was intemperate and he ended up alienating some of the lower class. [6] During his time in the castle, Luther set out writing a children’s catechism as well as a catechism for the common people. It was also during this time that he composed what some consider the battle hymn for the reformation â€Å"Almighty Fortress Is Our God. He went on teaching in his position, beginning to teach that priests could marry and soon met and married a former nun named Katharina von Bora who had followed him along with eight other nuns in fleeing from their convent in 1523 to take refuge in Wittenberg. [7] Together they produced six children of their own and opened their home to countless others as well as boarding students and other guests. [8] Luther continued to write, preach and teach and in 1530 he approved the Augsburg Confession and the Augsburg Apology as written by Philip Melanchthon. In 1573 Luther restated his doctrines in the Schmalkald Articles and spent his remaining years spent in inactive and productive service, such as writing â€Å"On Bondage of Will. † Luther died in his home town of Eisleben after mediating a meeting between two princes and experiences mild chest pains[9] in 1546. [10] The life of Martin Luther is something that one could marvel at, but there is more to this man’s story than a whole lot of scholarly achievements and raising questions that ended up causing Christianity to divide. He was a man of great passion and was extremely focused on God, realizing that it was about God and not about himself. When Christ drove the people out of the church saying they made it a den of theives he is angry because he knows that things are not what they should be, and sees what they could become, Martin Luther is another man with the same sort of view. He saw things the way that they could be. This anger was not exclusive to just Luther and Christ, it happens within many men and comes from different places, but what is common is that they are angry at the denial–not to themselves alone, but to their fellowmen as well–of all they have seen of head in their solitude that has been proven in their own personal life. Luther, slated by some as the last angry man of the Reformation, was once quoted saying, â€Å"I never work better, than when I am inspired of anger when I am angry, I can write, pray and preach well, for then my whole temperament is quickened, my understanding sharpened and my mundane vexations and temptations depart. † His life was tumultuous and deep melancholy assaulted him, leaving him weak and desperately ill. Upon tasting the grace of God he was driven with great compassion to preach the unsearchable riches of Christ and publish the Word of God in the native tongue of his countrymen. His passion and resolute faith was so great that it was said that upon hearing him pray people would exclaim: â€Å"How great a spirit, how great a faith, was in his very words! † As a monk he vowed to crucify the flesh through fasting, mortifications, and watchings struggling against deceitful thoughts and the evil inclinations of his heart. Nothing was too great a sacrifice if it would enable him to become a saint of acquired heaven. He was sold out on his quest for attaining holiness. He even claimed himself to be a pious monk stating that, â€Å"If a monk could obtain heaven by his good works, I should, certainly those who have known me can testify. † As he was carrying out this torture on himself he was confronted by John Staupitz, who asked him why he tormented himself the way that he did telling the young Martin, to â€Å"look at the wounds of Christ, to the blood that he has shed for you. † Luther was so wrapped up in literally beating himself up over his sins, he forgot a key element. Staupitz went on to tell him, â€Å"Instead of torturing yourself on account of your sins, throw you self in the Redeemer’s arms. Trust in Him–in the righteousness of His life–in the atonement of His death. † Not long after his conversations with Staupitz, Luther was done being an imitator, keeping to the rules of the religious order, but rather he was a new creation entirely, walking in the full assurance of faith confident that the God that began the good work in him, would perfect His work. For Luther Christ was no longer an option, Christ was the option, or as he said in his Commentary on Galatians, â€Å"Christ is no lawgiver. He is the Lifegiver. † [11] For Luther it was about knowing God, not having a knowledge of God, he was a man full of passion for his Savior, completely sold out on his Master’s plan. It was so much so that he thanked God that he knew enough to believe that God knew more than he did and was able to rest in knowing that that would never change. Knowing that God was greater and surrendering to that knowledge was an undercurrent to Luther’s life, he clung to the word of God for his confidence and promises, not to the tradition of men. [12] The Reformation is a broad term used to describe the period of time beginning around 1500 A. D. extending through the mid-seventeenth century, with roots dating back to around the fourteenth century. Society was in something of an upheaval and the church was faced persistent heresy. In the early stages of the Reformation Martin Luther was the pioneer of that Protestant Reformation that swept over Europe, and who ventured into a new arena of thought in relation to how the Church. [13] The previous writing was a short biographical work of Martin Luther showing some of the events of his life and how through them, he changed the Church as well as contributed to the progress of the Reformation concluding with a look at his life in a way to show more of who Luther was as opposed to what he did.

First and Second Triumvirates of Rome

First and Second Triumvirates of Rome A triumvirate is a system of government wherein three people share the highest political power. The term originated in Rome during the final collapse of the republic; it literally means the rule of three men (tres  viri). The members of a triumvirate may or may not be elected and may or may not rule in accordance with existing legal norms. The First Triumvirate An alliance of  Julius Caesar,  Pompey  (Pompeius Magnus) and  Marcus Licinius Crassus  ruled Rome from 60 BCE to 54 BCE. These three men consolidated power in the waning days of Republican Rome. Although Rome had expanded far beyond central Italy, its political institutions established when Rome was just one more small city-state among others failed to keep pace. Technically, Rome was still just a city on the Tiber River, governed by a Senate; provincial governors largely ruled outside of Italy and with few exceptions, the people of the provinces lacked the same dignity and rights that Romans (i.e., people who lived in Rome) enjoyed. For a century before the First Triumvirate, the republic was rocked by slave revolts, pressure from Gallic tribes to the north, corruption in the provinces and civil wars. Powerful men more powerful than the Senate, at times occasionally exercised informal authority with the walls of Rome. Against that backdrop, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus aligned to bring order out of chaos but the order lasted a scant six years. The three men ruled until 54 BCE. In 53, Crassus was killed and by 48, Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalus and ruled alone until his assassination in the Senate in 44. The Second Triumvirate The Second Triumvirate consisted of Octavian (Augustus), Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Mark Antony. The Second Triumvirate was an official body created in 43 B.C., known as Triumviri Rei Publicae Constituendae Consulari Potestate. Consular power was assigned to the three men. Usually, there were only two elected consuls. The triumvirate, despite a five-year term limit, was renewed for a second term. The Second Triumvirate differed from the first insofar as it was a legal entity explicitly endorsed by the Senate, not a private agreement among strongmen. However, the Second suffered the same fate as the First: Internal bickering and jealousy led to its weakening and collapse. First to fall was Lepidus. After a power play against Octavian, he was stripped of all of his offices except for  Pontifex Maximus  in 36 and later banished to a remote island. Antony having lived since 40 with Cleopatra of Egypt and growing increasingly isolated from the power politics of Rome was decisively defeated in 31 at the Battle of Actium and thereafter committed suicide with Cleopatra in 30. By 27, Octavian had retitled himself  Augustus, effectively becoming the first emperor of Rome. Although Augustus paid particular care to use the language of the republic, thus maintaining a fiction of republicanism well into the first and second centuries CE, the power of the Senate and its consuls had been broken and the Roman Empire began its nearly half-millennium of influence across the Meditteranean world.

As You Like It by William Shakespeare Essays

As You Like It by William Shakespeare Essays As You Like It by William Shakespeare Essay As You Like It by William Shakespeare Essay Essay Topic: As You Like it A. The Forest of Arden at first glance, is a country life of arcadian contentment, rustic tranquility, a golden world in all its glory. A place to while away the hours like, the old Robin Hood of England. And so is portrayed and backed up with the seemingly content Duke Senior and his merry men. Duke Senior praises the effects of Arden on him stating its different virtues in the forms of a healer, a nurturer and a counselor. Its effects on the people who come from the court are drastic if not almost instantaneous and bring out some unique aspect of their personality which is not yet known. For Oliver and Duke Frederick, there is an almost impossible change for the better as Duke Frederick is converted both from enterprise and from the world. Furthermore the previously non-existent bond of brotherly love is created between Orlando and Oliver which in turn leads to Olivers conversion. In Rosalinds case, the Forest provides a source of unimaginable freedom to express herself without the barriers of court conventions (though this may be the result of the disguise alone). It is the place where she can love Orlando without the strict rules and regulations that governed her previous residence. Likewise Orlando is provided an escape from his brother oppression where he can leisurely convey his love for Rosalind. On the contrary, the Forest can divert from the pastoral convention as you peer into its harsh realities and its ill-effects on its limited population. Duke seniors opening speech was in reality an attempt to hearten his co-mates and brothers-in-exile. Although thinly veiled with heartening comments about the seasons icy fang as a counselor and the churlish chidings of the winters wind as a sweet use of adversity, it still remains that it is an icy fang and the winds do bite and blow upon his body. Although, the Forest of Arden does display salutary qualities when it comes to the characters outlooks and personalities, it is still a source of discomfort and physical pain, a barren desert. Another characteristic that is associated with Arden is its sense of camaraderie and of an egalitarian society. Where Duke Seniors court becomes a circle of brothers, where Oliver and Orlando become brothers once more, where Duke Frederick learns humility. But this is not completely so as we see an example of a cruelty and neglect in Corins master. Moreover Celia, a lively character in the opening act of the play progressively loses her energy as she loses her friend (Rosalind) to forest follies. The forest also comes across as primitive. This is proven by the venison of the forest. The poor dappled fools are subject to cruelty of the most primitive kind in their own dwellings. In conclusion, the Forest of Arden is in fact an ideal place for recuperation and introspection in the sense that many of the characters achieved transformations of sorts. However it is seen (with a few exceptions), that the characters of the play are unwilling to stay in the forest when presented with the alternative of the court. Therefore, the forest may be ideal, but is a short-lived idealness.

Importance of reward and resourcing within human resource Essay

Importance of reward and resourcing within human resource - Essay Example The importance of human resource has increased all over the world after rapid industrialization n early 20th century. Different management styles and techniques have been introduced to manage styles. Human resource management is also received much attention with scholars and researchers trying to find insights into better ways of managing the human capital in an organization. Reward and resourcing are basic functions of a human resource department. It is vital to find the right people in order to achieve organizational goals and retaining them through reward system is equally essential. In this essay we will talk about the relative importance of reward and resourcing in overall role of human resource function. Different theories of reward will be discussed along side with the relationship between reward resourcing. The tough global business environment has increased the need of human resource management in giving an organization competitive edge over other companies. The role of rewa rd and resourcing in providing companies competitive edge will be specifically discussed. Importance of Reward and Resourcing Human resource management involves finding the right people for the right job but it is also important to provide employees everything they need in order to retain them for a longer period of time. In all industries and sectors employees are the most valuable asset of a company. Success and failure of any company is dependent on its employees. For this reason it is vital that a reward structure is established that provides employees with an opportunity to excel and in turn motivates them to work harder for the company. Employee retention is very important because of the high costs linked to recruitment. Also additional training will be required for the new employees. These costs are becoming a nightmare for companies all over the world. Reward and resourcing are also important because employees have some needs that should be fulfilled. These needs are not alw ays monetary but are non monetary as well. Encouragement and admiration can seriously affect an employee in continuing with the same company. If an employee things that he is being well taken care of then he will also deliver. Reward and resourcing is therefore extremely vital. Selection of employees and job design are important elements of resourcing. These are essential because finding the right person for the right jobs is important or else the company will suffer. Jobs should also be designed keeping in mind the human needs of employees. Selection and recruitment of employees is important especially in services industries and in considered among the top three issues in human resource management (D'Annunzio-Green, N. 2004). For determining appropriate reward structure appraisal of employees is also essential. It forms the basis on which a particular reward or incentive is given to an employee. This is a how resourcing and reward are interlinked. Through performance appraisal one will identify who is worthy of a reward. It is also important to provide incentive to employees in order to retain them. Selection procedure is also related to reward because through benefits and pay structure employees are attracted towards employee. This is how resourcing and reward are related to each other. Theories of Reward &Resourcing and their Relative Importance In this section the possible benefits and short comings of different theories and perspectives on reward and resourcing will be discussed. The relative importance of reward and resourcing will be highlighted with the help of these theories. There can be two types of recruitment namely internal and external recruitment. Internal recruitment involves hiring people from the company and external recruitment involves hiring people from outside the company. The potential advantage of internal recruitmen

Pros and Cons of Big Data Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Pros and Cons of Big Data - Assignment Example In this case, what these corporations may do with the data is anyone's guess. Another concern is the fact that big data analytics are never completely accurate. Most corporations, enthusiastic about the possibilities of large data analytics, consider all analysis obtained to be valid, even when this may not always be the case. a) As a consumer, I am inclined to be cautious when I use the internet. I have to examine all corporations that want my data and only give it to those that can be trusted, while denying access to those with past negative public privacy concerns. This may involve limited interaction with social networks, using search engines which value anonymity like DuckDuckGo and opting out of data collection programs when possible and appropriate. b) As a business user, I support the idea that no data should be collected without prior approval of the consumer. In as much as marketing should be tailored to the preferences of each potential buyer, it should not infringe on their privacy. As such, websites which use cookies to tailor adverts should have a limit on what data should be collected for this purpose. 3. Considering the issues with data accuracy, secondary use of the collected data and need to protect the rights of users of web services such as Facebook, email, etc. What changes would you suggest to address the abuse of data on the internet? First, this data collection should only be done with the consent of the user. They should be given an option to opt in or out of the program. The corporations should give a precise indication of the type of data that will be collected, the purpose that it will serve, what anonymity measures will be taken to protect the privacy of the user, how long the data will be stored and finally, a review of the secondary parties that this data will be made available to.